Which four major ISPs are identified in China?

Question

In China, the internet service provider landscape is dominated by four primary entities: China Telecom, China Unicom, China Mobile, and the China Education & Research Network (CERNET). These four organizations collectively manage approximately 95% of the nation's internet traffic. Their significant market share and the limited number of Internet Exchange Points (IXPs) available for interconnection contribute to network congestion. The reluctance of these major ISPs to readily open their infrastructure to other providers exacerbates this issue, leading to bottlenecks when data must traverse between different networks via these limited IXPs. Furthermore, establishing direct peering arrangements with these major Chinese ISPs from outside the country, particularly from the Asia-Pacific region, can be prohibitively expensive, often necessitating premium pricing. This confluence of factors—limited connectivity, restricted peering, and a high volume of users—creates substantial challenges for ensuring robust internet performance across China.

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Which four major ISPs are identified in China?

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